แนวทางการจัดบริการสุขภาพให้กับบุคลากรทางการแพทย์ในโรงพยาบาล (ACOEM)
ROLE OF THE MEDICAL CENTER OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH PROVIDER
MEDICAL ASSESSMENT OF EMPLOYEES
Occupational health practice in a medical center setting requires the same skills as such practice elsewhere, including thoughtful administrative management; knowledge of and interactions with safety, industrial hygiene, and toxicology; and sound preventive and clinical medicine, including surveillance, assessment of history and physical findings, diagnosis, treatment, and disposition.
Preplacement Medical Evaluation (PPME)
The Preplacement Medical Evaluation (PPME) usually represents the first clinical encounter for a prospective employee, setting the tone and defining expectations from occupational health Services (OHS). The PPME, which must be done after the offer of a job, serves to document those existing medical issues that are likely to have an impact on the new employee’s performance, health and safety in the healthcare work setting. It is not designed to diagnose or treat previously undiscovered medical problems. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1992 requires job descriptions that identify the “essential functions” of the job to be offered, with specific, precise descriptions and terminology with which employee capabilities must be compared. OHS should gather enough information to ensure that employees’ medical and functional status enables them to perform the essential functions of the job. OHS should outline the specific constraints and restrictions that Human Resources (HR) can use to determine appropriate accommodation, where and if feasible and appropriate. However specific diagnoses or other clinical information should not be released
State laws differ, but occupational physicians must be aware of local licensing and skill requirements. In general, they must act as a resource for nurse- and mid-level provider based evaluations and should be involved in any communication with HR about restrictions or failure to meet medical or functional standards for the offered job. Refusal to clear someone for work must be based on the issues of “direct threats” and on inability to meet specific standards. For example, a known alcoholic in acute relapse may not be suitable for hire, if existing policy states as such, but a cocaine addict who has completed rehabilitation cannot be refused employment on that basis alone. Conditions identified during the course of the PPME, such as elevated blood pressure, should be communicated to the individual with recommendations for follow-up, preferably in writing. New employees should also be fully informed of any recommended restrictions shared with HR.
The PPME documentation should be housed in a record/database separate from the institution’s medical record for patient care, primarily for access at a later date and to clarify the purpose of the data for evaluation rather than general health care. Of course, the data should be available to the providers of the healthcare institution if the new employee wishes to release the information to them according to the Health Information Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 (HIPAA) rules.
Other evaluations, such as drug testing, commercial driver certification, baseline medical status before working with hazardous chemicals, immunization status, examinations for respirator clearance, or tuberculosis surveillance status may be required before starting work, but some
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may be delayed until specific job assignments have been clarified. Specific regulations apply to some functions, such as flight examinations or drug testing, requiring specific certification by designated agencies such as the Federal Aviation Administration or testing and certification as a Medical Review Officer under Department of Transportation Guidelines.
Periodic Medical Evaluation
The healthcare workplace represents a very hazardous environment (see Workplace Hazards). Engineering and administrative controls should precede the use of personal protective equipment, but medical surveillance for adverse health effects from hazardous exposures often represents good medical practice and is required by Federal and even some state laws for specific hazards. Surveillance is required for tuberculosis, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) enforces the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) guidelines on tuberculosis as regulation. OSHA and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommend surveillance for employees exposed to hazardous drugs, despite a lack of robust scientific support for benefits or utility.
For exposures to certain substances, e.g. ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, lead, asbestos, cadmium and ionizing radiation, federal OSHA standards require medical surveillance when action levels are surpassed.
Most states have an “impaired provider” program for licensed individuals with mental, physical, or chemical dependence conditions that may impair their ability to practice safely. OHS is often part of the administrative process that initially reports such providers to the state licensing board(s) and subsequently monitors those providers to ensure compliance with the Board recommendations. Clear understanding of the regulations, understanding of Privacy issues, as defined in HIPAA and other regulations, and unambiguous communication capabilities, together with strict confidentiality in behavior and record-keeping, are essential for successful practice.
Episodic Medical Evaluation Job transfers
Since different jobs have different physical requirements, the preplacement medical evaluation is specific to the job. Therefore OHS should have an agreement with HR to review employees who are transferring to jobs that have specific physical and/or mental requirements. This may only require a review of the employee’s current medical status, particularly any temporary or permanent restrictions affecting work performance. If a face-to-face evaluation is normally required for the new job, the transferring employee should undergo that same evaluation. If a record review suggests a substantial mismatch of skills and requirements or simply a lack of information, OHS should contact the employee for clarification or a face-to-face evaluation.
Illness/injury affecting work performance
Work-related injuries and illnesses are best evaluated and managed by an occupational health provider in OHS. While healthcare workers may have the right to seek care elsewhere, the advantages of care from an in-house provider are straightforward. Convenience (access to physical therapy and other modalities), familiarity with the work site, and communication ease with supervisors generally facilitate care and recovery. OHS must carefully maintain good relationships with all parties, understand and respect employee/supervisor relationships, and maintain a patient/employee focus in clinical management. For those employees seeking care elsewhere who have restrictions or a prolonged duration of time away from work, the OHS provider should periodically contact the employee and request authorization to communicate with the treating provider. The treating provider should provide regular information to the supervisor or to HR on progress, as required by workers’ compensation statutes. OHS often acts as the
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clearinghouse for communication between other providers and the employee’s supervisor and/or HR.
Non-occupational injuries or illnesses should be treated similarly to work-related conditions if they affect work performance. Particularly in the case of contagious diseases, OHS providers should evaluate the employee before s/he returns to work, or establish criteria for returning to work that the employee’s attending physician must attest to. Some facilities have a policy requiring OHS clearance after a certain minimum consecutive days off work. Home or sports injuries may also require evaluation to determine restrictions in the workplace. As a service to the employee and to minimize time away from work, many OHS units may offer limited acute care services, such as throat cultures, ear lavage, rash evaluation, etc. Such services serve several purposes. They help employees trust the OHS unit as they rely on providers. Travel time to and from physician offices is shortened, so that staff are available to work longer. Conditions with potential implications for coworkers and patients can be identified early.
Medical evaluation/treatment should be provided for bloodborne pathogen and other infectious exposures, traumatic or ergonomic-related injuries, chemical exposures, and other work-related events. OHS should establish specific protocols and arrange 24/7 coverage.
Job fitness evaluation
Immediate evaluation may be necessary when a worker on duty is exhibiting dangerous or unacceptable behavior: verbal or physical assault, lapses into unconsciousness, alcohol odor on breath, slurred/garbled speech, etc. Such evaluations should begin with a report from the supervisor of the specific behavior in question. The supervisor should escort the employee to OHS. The employee should not be released to work until OHS has conducted a thorough history, physical, and any necessary consultation/testing. If the worker is expected to return to work in some capacity, the cost of the evaluation should be borne as a business expense while records are kept confidential and the provider only reports to the supervisor that the behavior was or was not related to a medical condition and when and under what conditions the employee may return to work.
Consultative visits may be arranged with OHS on a scheduled basis if either a supervisor or a worker recognizes that work performance is impaired by a real or perceived medical condition. OHS can evaluate the worker, coordinate optimal control of the medical condition, and recommend restrictions/accommodations that will maximize success in the workplace. OHS must resist the temptation to attribute all performance deficits to a medical condition, thereby “medicalizing” either poor motivation, relationship conflicts, or lack of skills. This caveat is true in any work environment, but the tendency to “medicalize” may be particularly tempting in a healthcare environment.
MEDICAL DIRECTION
The unique setting of OHS in healthcare
Development and management of OHS in a healthcare setting is a daunting task and requires constant awareness of the distinction between the mission of the organization (healthcare delivery) and the unit (occupational health services delivery). Five principles are essential to establish a proper relationship with key members of the organization:
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Title: Although the OHS director in non-clinical industries is usually called the corporate medical director, that title may be impolitic in healthcare, particularly if the organization is “physician-led.” Thus, the title of “Medical Director, OHS” clarifies the difference between mission leadership and “line operations” support.
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Reporting relationship: The OHS medical director should have ready access to the senior management of the medical center. OHS can provide case management to ensure
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proper care, appropriate restrictions, and timely return to duty after an illness or injury, but such work with HR and supervisors often encounters resistance around job limitations and may require top management support.
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Role as a specialist: The OHS medical director must be able to assure colleagues in other disciplines that OHS is not in the business of “stealing” or diverting patients from other providers. Medical colleagues are often unaware of the specialty of occupational medicine and its contents. The OHS medical director must clarify the role of OHS for colleagues in family medicine, orthopedics, etc., and be recognized as a specialist, expert in the management of disability, hazardous exposures, workers’ compensation and the interface of medical care with legislative requirements and regulations (FMLA, ADA, HIPAA, OSHA standards, CDC guidelines, etc.). Consultation services and support to colleagues struggling with such issues for outside care, including workers’ compensation, are important in developing a role.
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Institutional visibility: The medical director of OHS must develop alliances with organizational units that may be foreign to other physicians in the medical center, including safety, human resources, infection control, industrial hygiene, engineering, facilities management, environment services, purchasing, and the institution’s insurance carrier. Assignment to key committees, and attendance at meetings; establishment of policies, supported in the institutional framework; and presence in the various areas during rounds and problem solving is key to maintaining an effective presence.
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OHS staff: Success as medical director of OHS hinges primarily on the relationship with occupational health nurses and other staff. Frequent meetings, philosophical alignment, and respect of each other’s skills and opinions represent the foundation of a successful program. Nursing staff should be trusted to administer jointly developed policy and procedures, handle phone calls from employees, serve as internal case managers for disabled employees, and run programs, such as PPMEs, blood and body fluid exposure, TB surveillance, etc. Mid-level providers can manage much of the clinical volume. Staff may benefit from regular attendance at meetings (AOHP, AAOHN, ACOEM), and they need accessibility for informal “curbside” consult or to transfer management of a difficult case.
Disability management
Individual cases should be followed in OHS if they meet certain criteria: restrictions affecting work performance, prolonged time off work, or work-related injury/illness requiring ongoing treatment/restrictions. Case management requires differing levels of intensity depending on the severity/duration of the disability. At a minimum, a nurse case manager should monitor the medical records and work status reports from other providers with the option for direct communication with the employee or referral to the medical director/designee for evaluation. OHS must be careful to have authorization from the employee/patient to communicate with the supervisor and administration (see medical records and HIPAA).
Population-based disability management is no different in healthcare than in any other industry and works most effectively when OHS, HR, and the insurer(s) share the same database(s).
Return-to-work programs may be housed outside of OHS but require constant communication with OHS for clarification of restrictions and comparison of temporary work assignments. Ideally, alternate, “transitional” work should be available whether restrictions arise from an occupational or non-occupational condition. OHS staff can serve as a resource to supervisors to coordinate the smooth and rapid return to work either in the original assignment or in another job within the organization. The success of this program depends on HR absence policies, disability benefits, and pay and reporting rules, i.e., whether the supervisor retains the restricted employee on his/her payroll while on modified duty. As importantly, worker satisfaction and relationship with co- workers and supervisor represent more subtle but equally powerful forces. Once again, OHS must be vigilant to avoid “medicalizing” relationship issues and to help to negotiate a return to some useful function within the organization.
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Health Benefits Administration
Some input from OHS may be useful as employers construct health benefit plans for employees. In particular, occupational medicine providers may play a role in arranging employer-sponsored programs to address general home and workplace safety, healthy dietary choices, age-specific cancer screening recommendations, smoking cessation, and other preventative health efforts. OHS staff often serve as a resource to employees reminding them when they might benefit from an available service.
Employee Assistance Program (EAP)
EAP in the healthcare setting is particularly valuable for de-escalation of relationship issues in the workplace. Workers and supervisors in healthcare tend to view all problems in the context of medical diagnoses and may require clarification of such issues outside the medical arena. EAP does not establish an on-going relationship with the worker as a patient and generally does not bill on a fee-for-services basis. Such services may be obtained through an outside vendor, but there are some particular advantages to keeping EAP services ”in house.” The medical director may want to serve as a liaison to the EAP for oversight/advice about policies and particular cases as well as to gather data as to any trends in employee dissatisfaction or types of problems. When particular problems arise in a work area, an EAP counselor can serve in an organizational development role to guide the workers in that unit to a reasonable reconciliation before individual members develop performance deficits or symptoms of distress that will affect productivity or tax the healthcare system. Confidentiality and maintenance of trust do require a great deal of attention with in-house units, both in selection of a physical location and in maintenance of confidentiality.
Medical records
In order to satisfy HIPAA, OHS must decide, whether it is part of the practice of the healthcare organization or part of the administration. This then defines how records are stored (firewall), who has access to which elements (role-based access), and whether a signed release is needed (HIPAA-compliant release). While individual circumstances may vary, it is usually preferable to place OHS as part of the practice. This allows free communication between the medical director/OHS staff and the other providers in the organization.
OHS must have specific authorization from the employee/patient to release any medical information to the supervisor/administration. Generally, OHS will not need to share medical information with the employer, even with a release. Communication regarding work status should be devoid of protected health information.
Medical records and documentation should be housed in a record/database separate from the institution’s medical record for patient care. It should include pre-placement, medical surveillance, infectious disease and workers compensation records. They should not be accessible to professionals without involvement in direct care of the employee. Still, the data should be available to healthcare providers if the employee wishes to release the information to them.
HEALTH CARE SAFETY AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Health Care Facilities (JCAHO) requires that facilities
have a safety program. Such programs require skills in safety, industrial hygiene, engineering,
environmental management, housekeeping, workers compensation, and clinical disciplines.
Such programs generally consist of written policies, require some form of internal inspection and
quality assurance, and rely on defined approaches to the solving of recognized problems.
Establishment of top management commitment to safety, health, and environmental management
(SHEM) represents a core value for an organizational without which little progress will occur.
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JCAHO requires some form of recordkeeping. Although OSHA logs (1910.1904) often represent the formal output, many facilities and employers have developed complex systems to bring the various disciplines together in a single community of practice. This is generally collected in a committee called, in health care, an “Environment of Care” committee (EoCC), a safety committee, or some other organizational unit with regular meetings, minutes, a strategic plan, and formal reporting relationships to hospital leadership.
Healthcare safety staff often take the lead, but OHS clinician collaboration in several core functions is essential for the successful administration of these programs.
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The Hazards section of this guideline identifies hazards for which the hospital (internal or consulting) safety staff should develop programs. Many of these require medical surveillance programs, medical evaluation for fitness and capacity, and medical support for failures.
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Safety investigations of adverse incidents to employees require the establishment of incident review boards. Such investigations identify what should have occurred, what actually occurred, and why the two diverged in an attempt to prevent the next occurrence. Such groups generally function better when they are composed of individuals with a wide variety of skills (safety, engineering, clinical) and diverse viewpoints (management, professional, and employee representatives). Many facilities establish some fixed set of criteria by which incidents for review are selected (all lost time cases, or all diseases, or all cases costing more than a set sum of money, or events by quarterly frequency of occurrence).
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Scheduled evaluations of the environment of care (safety rounds) can identify newly occurring hazards, inurement to hazards and worsening work practices. Walk-throughs with safety, employee health, and employee representatives remain an important tool for safety management.
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Annual written reports, of money spent, costs saved, and services delivered reminds management of the value of programs
http://www.jointcommission.org/
http://www.va.gov/ncps/
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/accidentinvestigation/index.html
