NO.3 : THE DEFINITION OF THE EXISTENCE AND ENLIGHTENMENT

1.4. THE DEFINITION OF THE EXISTENCE AND ENLIGHTENMENT 

         1.4.1. The Buddhist Concept of Existence 

                    1.4.1.1 The Concept of Existence in Nikāya 

              Theravāda Buddhism looks at all things in terms of integrated factors. There is no real self (or essence) in all things. When all of the elements composing one’s being are divided and separated, no self remains. A simple example that is often employed is that of the ‘car’ : when all parts are assembled according to certain specifications, the result is called “car,” but if all of those parts are completely separated, the form of the car cannot be found ; there are only parts that can be referred to according to their various names.47 That is to say, the essence of the car does not exist separately from the composition of its part ; there is only the word “car” for the condition describing the assemblage of those parts. And no self can be found even in parts that consist of the combination of other smaller parts. Therefore, when we say that something exists in terms of a combination of various elements. 

                When the condition of all things is seen as integrated form composed of various elements, Buddhism can further inform us regarding the composition of those various elements, and their features. Since Buddhism has a special relationship to life, especially in terms of mind, a presentation of the various compositions must include both the physical and the mental aspects, or rūpa-dhamma and nāma-dhamma, and especially an analysis of the mind.48

               This presentation could be done in many different ways depending on a specific goal, but a presentation will be done based on the Five Aggregates, which is the popular method found in the Buddhist Suttas.49

               According to Buddhism, dividing the Five Aggregates50 entails an analysis of the constituent of life, which we call “being” (satta) or “person,” and so on : 

              1. Corporeality (rūpa) is comprised of the elements of the whole rūpa-dhamma, body and behavior of the body, or matter and material energy, including the qualities and behavior of this matter and energy. 

               2. Feeling and Sensation (vedanā) amounts to the impressions of pleasure (sukha), pain (dukkha), or difference that occur by contact with the world through the five senses and the heart/mind. 

               3. Perception (saññā) is that which can be established or known. In other words, it is the establishment of knowledge of conditions and the cause for remembering that object. 

               4. Mental formations, predispositions, or volitional activities (sańkhāra) are the psychological compositions, or the various qualities that embellish the mind making it good, bad, or neutral, and they have intention (cetanā) as their guide. To put it very simply, some of these good and bad thoughts are as follows : confidence (saddhā), mindfulness (sati), moral shame (hiri), moral fear (ottappa), loving-kindness (mettā), compassion (karunā), joy (muditā), equanimity (upekkhā), wisdom (paññā), delusion (moha), ill-will (dosa), greed (lobha), conceit (māna), perspective (ditthi), envy (issa), and avarice (macchariya).51 

                 5. Consciousness (Viññāna) involves being aware of sensation via the six senses (that is, the five senses and mind), such as seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, physically touching, and mentally understanding. 

                  The Buddha’s words reveal the meaning of the Four Noble Truths, which serve as a summary of the essence of Buddhism, and there are statements of special interest related to the Five Aggregates of Existence that appear in the Four Noble Truths : The first Noble Truth mentions dukkha or suffering. Very early on, the Buddha illustrated the meaning or definition of dukkha by giving examples of various events and occurrences that were readily apparent and common in people’s lives. He did this in order to show various types of dukkha. And in the end, the Buddha summed this up by saying that when the Five Aggregates are objects of attachment they become dukkha. 

                “Bhikkhus, the following comprise the Noble Truths of dukkha : Birth is dukkha; the aging process is dukkha; death is dukkha; associating with things that one does not love is dukkha; separation from people or things that one love is dukkha; desiring something without attaining it is dukkha. In short, attachment to the Five Aggregates is dukkha”.52

               Buddha’s words, aside from showing the status of the Five Aggregates of Existence in Buddhism, also reveal one important point, and that is the meaning of dukkha. In order to make this concept easy to remember and summarize, dukkha simply describes the Five Aggregates of Existence when they have become objects of attachment. 

                The main thing that must be studied and noticed here is the difference between the Aggregates of Existence and the Aggregates of Existence as objects of attachment. Please note the following words of the Buddha : 

               “Bhikkhus, I will explain the Five Aggregates of  Existences and the Five Aggregates of Existence as objects of attachment.” 

               “What are the Five Aggregates of Existence ? Body (rūpa)… sensation (vedanā)… perception (saññā)… mental formations (sańkhāra)… and consciousness (viññāna) ; any of these that resides in the pat, future, or present, is internal or external, far or near, and exists in a crude or refined, inferior or superior manner, are all called the Five Aggregates of Existence.” 

               And what do the Five Aggregates of Existence have to do with attachment ? Body, sensation, perception, mental formations, consciousness, any of these that resides in the past, future or present, is internal or external, far or near, exists in a crude or refined, inferior or superior manner, any of these things that are composed of mental intoxications (āsava) are grounds for attachment (upādāna)…. All of these, therefore, are called the Five Aggregates of Existence as objects of attachment.53 

            "Bhikkhus, I will explain the things that cause attachments and comprise attachments; so, all of you listen carefully. "

           “Body… sensation… perception… mental formations… consciousness are the things that can cause attachment. The desire to attach or cling (chandarāga) to body, sensation, mental formations, and consciousness constitutes attachment to that thing”.54

           The preceeding statement represents one of the most fundamental and important principles for understanding the Buddha’s teaching. 

 

1.4.1.2. Concept of Existence in Abhidhamma 

                In the Abhidhamma Pitaka, existence is divided into two categories : ultimate existence (paramatthasacca) and conventional existence (sammuttisacca).55  Dhammas are classified as paramatthasacca. The difference between the two categories can be illustrated with the following examples. A vase can be destroyed by smashing it and is therefore said to exist in the conventional sense. A piece of cloth would be classified in the same manner. A human being, a conventional sense (sammutisacca). However, if the vase had been green, then that green color would continue to exist even though the vase had been smashed. Even if the vase were reduced to the smallest elements to atoms (paramānū), the green color would still exist. Items that do not depend on other items for their existence, which exist in and of themselves (or have self-nature [sabhāva] ) are said to be ultimately existence and are called dhammas.56 Mental functions, such as lust, may also be called dhammas since they cannot be analyzed into more basic elements. Dhammas are also analyzed in terms of their powers. Thus the Dhamma called “lust” has the power of causing lust to arise in the mind. 

                 Any element that cannot be analyzed further is said to have ultimate existence. It is a Dhamma and has its own self-nature (svabhāva). It is a real existent. The self-nature is defined as “that which exists in and of itself” (svabhāva), “something that is not made” (akarita), and “something not dependent on other things for its existence” (nirāpekkhā).57

                A dhamma is also defined as something that has its own distinctive mark (svalaksanadhārana Dhamma). Strictly speaking, since self-nature itself is equivalent to being a Dhamma, it is not correct to say that something having self-nature is a Dhamma. Something that has a self-nature and is made up of Dhammas has conventional existence. Thus self-nature – in other words, that which has a distinctive mark – is a Dhamma. However, the terms “self-nature” and “distinctive mark” are sometimes used interchangeable without the above distinction. 

                 The term “Dhamma” refers to the teachings preached by the Buddha, since the Buddha’s teachings are concerned with the facts of human existence.58 Human existence is made up of constantly changing phenomena and of the basic entities that constitute phenomena.59 Example of phenomenal existence are the body, the mind, and the external world. However, phenomenal existence can be analyzed further. For example, within the body there are elements such as the visual, auditory, and gustatory faculties. Since the visual and auditory faculties perform different functions, they are of different qualities. The various types of perception and the organs that are the bases of those perceptions are called indriyas. The body is analyzed into visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile organs. The “tactile organ” refers to the skin, flesh, muscles and other parts of the body without the other four sense organs.60

                  The mind is analyzed into its components such as judgments, memories, and emotions. These components are analyzed further, revealing many mental factories. For example, a list of defilements (kilesa) might include lust (rāga), hatred (dosa or pathigha), pride (māna), doubt (vicikicchā), and wrong views (ditthi). Other mental faculties are also included in such lists. Some pairs of mental faculties or qualities seem to be mutually exclusive. Such pairs include love and dislike, lust and hatred, and good and bad. Consequently, some Abhidhamma thinkers argued that it was unreasonable to believe that all such mental faculties were attributes of a single entity called the mind. Rather, the mind was composed of many mental faculties acting in concert. Mental faculties such as doubt, faith, lust, and hatred were considered to be independent entities, and the activities and changes of the mind were understood in terms of their interactions. The elemental entities of which phenomenal existence was composed were called “Dhammas,” a usage of this term that is particularly important in Theravada Buddhism. When the term “dhammas” is used in the Abhidhamma tradition, it often refers to the entities that constitute phenomena.

 

1.4.2. The Definition of Enlightenment 

                The idea of enlightenment (bodhi) as final religious attainment, historically speaking, starts with the Buddha, for in the Buddhist way of thinking, he was the first to get the enlightenment. The word Buddha itself (from the root budh – to know) means one who has gained knowledge, knowledge about the true nature of the process or phenomenon of life. Coming into being, based on the principle of conditionality (idappaccayatā), life proceeds with unfailing predictability (avitathatā) and invariability (anaññathatā).61 This truth or principle is at work in the universe, irrespective of the enlightenment of person about it.62

                 This conditionality is the unfailing and unalterable order that governs the working of the life process. In enlightenment one comes to know of it63 and thereby transcends the very process which is regarded in Buddhism, in its overall estimation, as being unsatisfactory. This cessation of the recurring life process which is referred to as (bhavanirodha) is Nirvāna, the summum bonum of Buddhism. The reversal of the process too, is based on the same causal principle. 

                  Buddhist texts express this idea of the Buddha’s enlightenment, that being the significant first instance, using several idioms. In an autobiographical account, speaking about his enlightenment, the Buddha is seen making the statement that ‘eye appeared’, that ‘wisdom arose’ and that ‘there was illumination.’64 Hence the path or the middle way (majjhimā patipadā) which leads to this Nibbanic goal of enlightenment is described as ‘producing the eye’ (cakkhukaranī) and ‘bringing about wisdom’ (ñānakaranī).65 Nevertheless, enlightenment is not merely the end product of the Buddhist religious life which brings about release.66 It is also reflected in the process which leads to that final product. 

                    The Buddhist Middle way, i.e. the Noble Eightfold Path, in fact, begins with Right View (sammāditthi) which means an initial enlightened outlook that has to be cultivated and acquired both with the assistance from outside and intelligent thinking within oneself.67 This enlightened outlook which is essentially the basis of discipline in Buddhism and which a disciple is expected to acquire and develop in order to liberate himself from the samsarā process, reflects an awareness of the three characteristics of life or tilakkhana which are impermanence (aniccā), and soullessness (anattā).68 This awareness reduces the over-inflated ego-consciousness of an individual (ahańkāra and mamańkāra) and consequently also of the corroding manifestations of attachment and aggression (abhijjā and vyāpāda). It helps the disciple in a refined withdrawal from involvement in the affairs of the world, helps him to deepen his vision and acquire total detachment and freedom.69

                  In the Noble Eightfold Path, Right View leads to right thought patterns (sammā-sańkappa) and thereby to right speech and right action consequently. Profitable spiritual attainments like self-possession (sati) and tranquility of mind (Samādhi) come in the wake of these. Viewing it differently, disentanglement from the painful involvement in life comes to this maturity of vision, through a realistic attitude to life in the world.70 This brings the necessary detachment which makes release from the bonds of life, and hence of existence, a reality.71

                   This enlightenment, also referred to as gaining of knowledge (aññārādhanā) is said to be the result of a process of culture (sikkhā) which is gradual72 and not instantaneous.73 Contributing to the attainment of this enlightenment (bodhi) are a group of seven items referred to as bojjhańgas or factor of enlightenment which in turn have come to be included in a larger list of thirty-seven qualities or items constituting or contributing to enlightenment (Bodhipakkhiyā Dhammā). It is said of the seven factors of enlightenment that their steady cultivation,74 brings about final release or emancipation.75

                    They are also described as being conducive to disengagement (from damaging types of involvement in the affairs of the world : vivekanissitam),76 to detachment (virāganissitam).77 It would be of interest to observe that these factors of enlightenment include, at the very outset, mental alertness (sati) and a capacity for discriminatory analysis of pertinent data relating both to oneself and to the environment (dhammavicaya). The energetic application that is necessary is brought under viriya, and the sustaining joy or piti one gets in the process of this spiritual upliftment contributes to the composure of body (passaddhi). The tranquility of mind (samādhi) which one attains at the end of all this and the healthy neutrality of outlook (upekkhā) complete all the factors necessary for enlightenment (satta-bojjhańga). 

                      This enlightenment or gaining of knowledge which opens the gates to final release is the highest expression of Buddhist culture referred to earlier as sikkhā. It is the third and final stage of the threefold culture (tisso sikkhā) and go under the name of adhipaññāsikkhā or culture relating to the development of wisdom. This is inevitably so because samsāra from which release is brought about by avijjā or the absence of this correct knowledge (avijjā paccayā sańkhārā… etc.). It is clearly stated in the suttas that in the presence of this wisdom the foundations of an individual’s samsāra process or āsavas are shattered.78

                     In the Canonical Pāli texts two phases of knowledge or enlightenment seem to be associated with the ultimate release in Buddhism, one succeeding the other.79 They are dhammatthitiñāna or the initial knowledge of the law of causal genesis and ‘nibbāna ñāna’ or the knowledge leading to final cessation. Dhammatthiti undoubtedly forms the basic or major premise of Buddhism, for it is the term with which the principle of causal genesis is introduced.80

                     In fact, the first true initiation into the doctrine of Buddhism which is often referred to as the appearance of the eye of the Dhamma (Dhammacakkhu) is closely tied up with the comprehension of the causal principle which inspires confidence in the disciple by bringing into his view release from samsāra as a hopeful reality, which in other words means that, of all conditioned things or things that come into being a cessation can be brought about.81 The result of this initial gaining of knowledge is described in the Buddhist texts as elimination of skeptical doubt and gaining of confidence and self-assurance with regard to the teaching professed.82

                     In the higher reaches of enlightenment leading to complete emancipation in Buddhism one meets with the regular reference to the threefold knowledge or tisso vijjā. On the attainment of each of these vijjās, it is said that avijjā or ignorance is destroyed (avijjā vihatā), darkness is dispelled (tamo vihato) and light has appeared (āloko uppanno).83 They are as follow :- 

                 1. Pubbe nivāsānussati ñāna which is recollection of one’s former lives. 

                 2. Sattānam cutūpapātañāna which is vision into the death and birth processes of beings. 

                 3. Āsavakkhayañāna which is knowledge leading to the final disappearance of all defilements which prolong the samsāra process.84 

                1) Pubbenivāsānussati appears to be a first-hand experience or total conviction of the fact of rebirth, verified in terms of oneself. It is one aspect of the truth of samsāra. 2) Cutūpapātañāna, on the other hand, is a personal discovery of the operation of the law of the karma, which is the other complementary aspect of samsāra. When viewed from this angle they are an integral part of the psychology of Nirvāna. 3) Āsavakkhaya, which comes finally, is the natural outcome of the two preceding phases of knowledge, well-grounded and powerful enough to shatter the foundations of samsāra. It is explained, as the grasp of reality in term of the four noble truths. 

                   The concept of enlightenment came to be subsequently looked upon as consisting of different grades and therefore as being different in contrast according to the three modes of liberation or ñāna, i.e. of the Buddha, paccekabuddha and arhant or sāvaka. The Buddha’s enlightenment which is generally referred to as sammāsambodhi contains, besides its basic contents of yathābhūtañāna or knowledge of the true nature of things, other factors such as Four Noble Truths, many extra powers and possibilities unique to the Buddha, culminating in his omniscience or sabbaññutañāna. 

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47 S. I. 135.

48 These can be broadly defined as mind (nāma) and matter (rūpa) or nāma-dhamma and rūpa-dhamma ; but the Abhidhamma tends to divide these into three : mind (citta), mental factors (cetasika), and matter (rūpa).

49 S. III. 158.

50 Ibid., 47 ; Vbh. 1.

51 Ibid., 59.

52 Vin. I. 10.

53 S. III. 47.

54 Ibid., 166.

55 Dhs., 193, 244 ; AA.I. 95 ; KvuA. 34 ; Comp. 81.

56 Dhs., 245.

57 Ibid., 193, 211, 244, 245.

58 Phrarajavaramuni, op.cit., p. 10. 

59 DhsA. 272 ; see also DA. II.11.

60 D. III. 243 ; M. III. 216 ; Vbh. 70.

61 S. II. p. 26.

62 Ibid., 25 f. : “uppādā vā tathāgatānam anuppādā vā tathāgatānam t'hitā vā sā dhātu dhammatthititā dhammaniyāmatā idappaccayatā.”

63 Ibid., 25 f. : “tam' tathāgato abhisambujjhati abhisameti.”

64 Vin. I. 11. : “cakkhum' udapādi ñānam' udapādi paññā udapādi vijjā udapādi āloko udapādi.”

65 M. I. 15.

66 D. II. 217. : “evam' etam' yathā bhūtam' sammappaññāya datthabbam'.”

67M. I. 294.

68 Ibid., 138, 232.

69 Ibid., 138.

70 Ibid., 139.

71 Ibid., 139. : “evam passam' bhikkhave sutavā ariyo sāvako rūpasmim nibbindati…nibbindam virajjati virāgā-vimuccati.”

72 Ibid., 479 f. : “anupubbasikkhā anupubbakiriyā anupubbapat,ipatipadā aññārādhanā hoti.”

73 Ibid., I. 479.

74 M. III. 275.

75 Ibid., 275. : “āsavānam' khayā anāsavam' ceto-vimuttim' paññāvimuttim' dit,t'heva dhamme sayam abhiññā sacchigatvā upasampajjaviharati.”

76 M. I. 11.

77 Ibid.

78 Ibid., 477. : “paññāya cassa disvā āsavā parikkhīnā honti : seeing his wisdom, the defilements which ensnare his mind totally disappear.”

79 S. II. 124.

80 Ibid., 25. : “thitā sā dhātu dhammathititā dhammaniyāmatā idappaccayatā.”

81 M. I. 380. ; A. IV. 186. : “virajam vitamalam dhammacakkhum udapādi yam kiñci samudayadhammam sabbam tam nirodhadhammanti.”

82 Ibid., 380.

83 Ibid., 23.

84 D. III. 220, 275 ; A. V. 211.